The Newark Earthworks

The Road, The Stone and The Heavens

Nestled by Ohio’s Capital city is another “wonder of the ancient world”.[1] The 2000 year old Newark Earthworks is a collection of mounds formed to make geometric shapes that are the largest of their kind found anywhere in the world. The site consists of a circle, an octagon and a square, all of which are connected by roads. The site has been called the” Crown Jewel of the Hopewell Culture” and one of the most traveled to destinations of the ancient world.[2] The site is so large in scale that it can only be seen in its entirety from the air and each geometric shape is so massive that they become nearly inconceivable and almost impossible to photograph from the ground. To be honest this is one of those ancient ruins that must be seen to be fully appreciated.

For those who take the time to stop by Newark Earthworks Museum and State Park you will be greeted by a long manicured grass hill that is visible from the main parking lot.

(View from the parking lot) 

          However once you have made your way up the path towards the museum you will find yourself standing at the entrance to the Great Circle.The nearly 14 ft. gateway that leads to the interior of the circle is made completely out of dirt and wood and gives the appearance that you are peering into something special. Once inside the Great Circle the vastness of the interior is revealed. Even though others may be wandering around it gives you the feeling as though you have the run of the place. Even though the circle is situated near the busiest section of town the walls of the Circle seem to drown out the noise of the city and provide a sense of seclusion. It is no wander why this place was once celebrated as a spiritual destination.

(View from the Trench and inner Circle)

The Great Circle is nearly 1,200 feet in diameter with 8 foot high walls set atop of a 5 foot deep trench that is said to have once contained water. The interior of the circle is nearly four football fields long and so spacious that the Great Pyramid of Giza could sit inside its walls and never touch a side.

Most of the Earthworks complex has been destroyed by modern expansion but the Octagon Mound and the Great Circle Mound are still visible today. Unfortunately the Great Circle Mound is the only remaining mound that is still open to the public. A private golf course and country club currently reside inside the Octagon Mound and because of this it is only open to the public a few times a year.

(Artist recreation of the Newark Earthworks)

Unlike most of the mounds found throughout Ohio and Indiana, the Great Circle Mound does not contain burials. Early explores believed that the mound was the ruins of an ancient fort but modern researchers find this explanation unlikely do to the fact that there is no evidence of construction beyond the current geometric designs. The modern consensus is that the purpose of the Earthworks was ceremonial and astrological. Basically the entire earthworks complex is a giant calendar that doubled as a place of celebration.

Archaeoastronomy

The Great Circle Mound and the entire Earthworks complex was laid out in a manner that would allow certain elements to align with different movements of the sun and the moon. Modern researchers have termed this type of architecture “archaeoastronomy”. The Hopewell Indians and their Newark Earthworks were among the first structures to incorporate this type of architecture.

The gateway that leads to the inside of the Great Circle Mound is positioned to align with the summer and winter solstice while the gateway to the Octagon Mound is positioned to align with the seasonal rising and setting of the moon. It is believed that the other geometric shapes that once existed followed this same architectural style. Researchers believe that these alignments served as markers for the changing of the seasons.[3] Considering the tools that would have been used 2000 years ago, the precision of the structures are truly amazing

          

[4]

How these geometric shapes were so precisely designed remains a mystery to modern researchers but that is not the only mystery to be had at the Earthworks complex. Newark Earthworks may also have some of the earliest roads known to exist.

The Hopewell Road

When discussing ancient roadways it is highly unlikely that anyone would mention prehistoric Native Americans however, modern research may provide an argument for the Hopewell’s inclusion into the discussion. The Earthworks found in Newark show evidence that they were once interconnected by roads that extended well beyond their borders. Even though  much of the original landscape has given way to modern advancement, researchers have discovered what appears to be the remnants of an ancient road. The remnants have been dated to the time of the Hopewell Culture. This means that if the road existed during the Hopewell Culture then it is one of the oldest roads in the world.

The Hopewell Indians existed from approximately 500 BC to 1000 AD. The Newark Earthworks was constructed sometime prior to 100 BC. This means that the road would have been built around the same time as the Romans were building their first roads.

That is something I bet your high school history teacher neglected to tell you while discussing the amazing advancements made by the Roman Empire.

Currently the Hopewell Road lies just below a thin layer of sod and grass. Researchers describe the road as a straight line that stretches 60 miles with parallel earthen embankments that are approximately 3 feet in height and 200 feet apart.[5] It is unknown if the road was originally covered with soil or if it simply became overgrown with time.

Things that make you go Hmmm???

The invention of the wheel and the use of horses is believed to have been brought from Europe long after the Hopewell were gone. Because of this it is not unusual to find roads in association with later cultures that use one or both of those things. However, the Hopewell are believed to have had neither of those luxuries so the discovery of a road is a bit compelling. It is well known that the Hopewell Indians were long distance travelers and traders but artifacts suggest that they did so on foot or by boat. So the logical question is…….Why did the Hopewell need roads if their two primary forms of transportation were walking and boating?

Perhaps the road was simply a grand gesture fitting the grandness of the Earthworks complex or maybe the goal of the road was to encourage travel to and from the earthworks. The simple fact is that ancient America is so understudied and misrepresented that places like Newark Earthworks makes people start to question what they thought they knew about America prior to the arrival of the Europeans. It may even be that the Hopewell did have other means of transportation that have yet to be discovered. The only thing that is certain is that the Hopewell Road demonstrates that there is much left to discover and explain about life in prehistoric North America.

The Newark Holy Stones

Located near the center of the Great Circle is three small mounds called the Eagle Mounds.They are said to be called this because they resemble an eagles claw. However, that is not all these little mounds are famous for.

 

(Present day Eagle Mounds)

In 1860 a man named David Wyrick found an inscribed stone while excavating near Eagle Mounds. The stone contained a condensed version of the Ten Commandments written in a style of writing most associated with the tribes of Israel. The stone is one of the most controversial and debated artifacts to ever come out of North America. The stone is even housed in a museum that is not supported or connected to the Earthworks complex and the only thing that can be viewed at the complex is a copy of an old newspaper clipping that describes the finding.

The stone is approximately 6 inches long and is made of limestone. The front of the stone contains an image of Moses while the outer edges and back of the stone contain the Hebrew script. Because of the Hebrew script Wyrick believed that the stone must have come from one of the tribes of Israel and thus began the debate.

(Newark Holy Stone)

The age of the stone has never been determined and a definitive explanation for its origin remains a matter of debate. Some experts say Wyrick faked the stone; others say he was duped into believing that the stone is real, while still others argue for its authenticity. [6] Until more light can be shed on the artifact the true origin of the stone may never be revealed. Like many things about the Newark Earthworks the Decalogue Stone, more commonly known as the Newark Holy Stone remains a mystery.

If you find yourself in the vicinity of Newark Ohio and you have some time to kill, I highly recommend visiting the Newark Earthworks. This ancient example of prehistoric America is well worth the trip and it is something that is best seen rather than described.

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[1] Bradley T. Lepper, The Newark Earthworks: A Wonder of the Ancient World' Columbus , (Ohio: Ohio Historical Society, 2002).

[2] Susan L. Woodward, and Jerry N. McDonald, Indian Mounds of the Ohio Valley: A Guide to Adena and Hopewell Sites, The McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company, (Blacksburg, Virginia, 1986)  p.16-23.

[3] Lindsay Jones, and Richard D. Shiels, The Newark Earthworks: Enduring Monuments, Contested Meanings. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2016, https://muse.jhu.edu/.

[4] Photo by Timothy E. Black

[5] Bradley T. Lepper, "Tracking Ohio's great Hopewell Road," Archaeology 48, no. 6 (1995): 52-56

[6] J. Huston McCulloch,. The Newark, Ohio Decalogue Stone and Keystone, Symposium, Nov. 6, 1999, http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/jhm/arch/decalog.html.

Cheif Blackhoof of the Wapakoneta Shawnee

One of my favorite things about studying history is that it provides the opportunity to discover people, places and stories that would otherwise go unnoticed by the average person. The story of Chief Blackhoof is one of those stories that is all but forgotten in popular history but is none - the - less, a significant story within the creation and colonization of the United States.

Very little is written about the life and times of the last Great Shawnee leader but what is known is that Chief Blackhoof’s story cannot be told without including the legends as well as the struggles.

The beginning of the French and Indian War also known as the Seven Year War.
In the morning hours of July 9, 1755 General Edward Braddock led a British force of about 1300 soldiers across the Monongahela River near present day Pittsburgh. The mission was part of a larger campaign waged by the British in an effort to force the French out of the gGreat Lakes Region. General Braddock’s mission was to secure the surrender of the French Fort Duquesne. After crossing the river with little opposition Braddock and his army set there sights on Fort Duquesne. Suddenly Braddock found himself surrounded by a force of nearly 900 Native American warriors. Braddock’s force became quickly overwhelmed and chaos ensued. By the end of the day Braddock had suffered the worst Indian defeat in British history. Braddock himself, ended up dyeing from the wounds suffered during the battle that has been simply termed, “Braddock’s defeat”. The future Shawnee chief Blackhoof was one of the warriors who defended Fort Duquesne and future American President George Washington was one of surviving members of Braddock’s army. 

                                        The Legend of Bulletproof George

In the mist of the early morning  I raised my rifle at the invading pale face and fired a shot. My aim was true but the bullet somehow missed. I adjusted my aim so the face of the white man was directly in the path of my bullet and once again I fired. As if guided by the Great Spirit my bullet once again missed its mark. It was at that moment I knew that this man must be destined for great things. I lowered my rifle and allowed the man to pass unharmed. It was said that the jacket the white man was wearing was riddled with bullet holes yet the man escaped the battle unscathed and uninjured. Years later I had council with this same man. I was now the leader of my people and he was the leader of his.[2] We both had grown in wisdom as a result of the events that took place that day. I would later call this man a friend and an ally to my people.

Whether or not this interaction ever took place is a matter of debate among scholars and historians but what is agreed upon is that the story includes two very important figures in American History. George Washington the man who could not be shot and Blackhoof the Shawnee warrior who took the shots and told the story. For both of these men, the Battle at Monongahela River would set in motion a series of events that would guide the two towards a greater purpose.

Blackhoof’s Final Resting Place

Nestled in the heart of Indian Country in northwest Ohio is a quite little community known as St. Johns. Pleasant and quant as any other small Midwestern town this community not only resides in an area once dominated by the Shawnee Indian tribe, it is also the former home and final resting place of one of the tribes most respected and influential leader.

Catahecassa aka Chief Blackhoof,

Blackhoof the man

By all accounts Blackhoof was a fierce warrior and cunning leader. Throughout his life he fought against the invading French, British and American forces all in an effort to ensure the survival of his people. He also fought with the French, British, and Americans trying to ensure that same result. When it comes to Blackhoof one thing is certain, there was no length he would not go to try and ensure the survival of his people.

Historians tendency to glorify the exploits of fellow Shawnee tribal member, Tecumseh as well as other militant American Indians, underscores the fact that not all American Indians were opposed to change. In fact many like Little Turtle and Black Hoof favored assimilation and cooperation with Americans. What is lost in all the tales of glorious bloodshed and stories of noble defiance is the fact that Blackhoof and his followers chose to survive and in many ways prosper. Blackhoof once said that he believed that the Shawnee “were one man with the whites” and because “treaties have always considered us Americans; we look upon ourselves to be such now” Blackhoof argued that because of the common creation of the Americans and the Shawnee the two “aught to be bound to the ties of friendship.”[3] However, Blackhoof was not always the gracious host and one should not view Blackhoof’s preference toward assimilation as a character flaw or a sign of weakness.

Born around 1740 in the present state of Florida, Blackhoof grew up being forced to relocate do to the encroaching white man. He spent most of his childhood, watching his people fight and die as they continued to move deeper and deeper into the American Northwest.  It wasn’t until he reached the Ohio territory that he and his Shawnee brethren found a home free of the white man. However, war and the white man would not be far behind.[4]

 For the forgotten figure that he is, Blackhoof was a fierce warrior who did not shy away from conflict. In fact he fought in nearly every major Native American conflict within the Northwest Territory. He fought alongside Little Turtle, Blue Jacket, Tecumseh, and the Prophet. He fought against George Washington, General St. Clair, General Wayne, and Lord Dunmore. It was not until the devastating defeat at the battle of Fallen Timbers that Blackhoof decided to negotiate peace with the white man.

The beginning of the end

Blackhoof was one of the main architects of the treaty that ended much of the major conflict between the Americans and the Indians living within the Great Lakes Region. The Greenville Treaty as it was called drew a symbolic line through Ohio separating Indian land from American land. America gained half of Ohio from the Indians in the deal but Blackhoof and the others gained a legal right to Northwest Ohio.[5]

After the Treaty of Greenville, Blackhoof and his people establish a vast and lucrative agricultural exchange. Blackhoof who was now called the Grand Chief of the Shawnee controlled most of the present day counties of Logan and Auglaize in what is now the state of Ohio.[6] Blackhoof in many ways embraced the civilization and assimilation plan of the Jefferson administration. He welcomed the introduction of English education, English laws and after a short attempt to stay neutral he even encouraged his warriors to fight for the United States in the War of 1812. After the signing of the Treaty of Greenville, Blackhoof not only gained in power among his own people he also became a valued asset of the United States Military.

Over a thirty year reign Blackhoof somehow managed to keep the peace and turn Wapakoneta into the capital city of his Shawnee nation. Under Blackhoof the Shawnee tribe of Wapakoneta became very successful farmers and agriculturalists. Because of the success of the Shawnee farmers Wapakoneta became the first city in northwest Ohio to have a sawmill and gristmill. For a short time it seemed like Blackhoof had single handedly saved his people from the advancing American settler. However, in the end he was not powerful or influential enough to avoid losing his land to Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Shortly after his death in 1831 Blackhoof’s Shawnee tribe was forced to sign over their land to the American government and move west of the Mississippi. The once mighty Wapakoneta Shawnee lived out their remaining years on a reservation in unfamiliar territory and without their beloved Chief Blackhoof.[7]

In many respects Blackhoof’s life was more tragic than that of the militant Tecumseh, who chose to go down fighting. Both Blackhoof and Tecumseh illustrated the futility of the Indian position in the early nineteenth century. Blackhoof rejected the rhetoric of the Prophet and Tecumseh and chose to negotiate peace. He turned a blind eye to the promises of the British and fought alongside his American neighbors. He convinced his people to follow the advice of the Americans and to adhere to the peaceful intentions of the treaties he signed. However, in the end Blackhoof could not stop the American expansion into his territory and like Tecumseh Blackhoof died never having secured a home for his people.

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[1] René Chartrand, Monongahela 1754–55: Washington’s defeat, Braddock’s disaster, (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2013).

[2]George Washington Parke Custis, and Mary Randolph Custis Lee, Recollections and Private Memoirs of Washington, (Derby & Jackson, 1860).

[3] Stephen Warren, The Shawnees and Their Neighbors, 1795-1870, (University of Illinois Press, 2008).

[4] John Sugden, "Black Hoof," American National Biography Online. Oxford University Press, http://www.anb.org/articles/20/20-01687.html.

[5] "The Treaty of Greenville 1795," Lillian Goldman Law Library, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/greenvil.asp.

[6] See Stephen Warren The Shawnees and Their Neighbors, 1795-1870.

[7] See the "Treaty of Lewistown (1829) " Ohio History Connection Virtual Library, http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Treaty_of_Lewistown_(1829). and "Treaty of Wapakoneta (1831)" Ohio History Connection Virtual Library, http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Treaty_of_Wapakoneta_(1831)_(Transcript).

The Hopewellian Connection

        One of my philosophies is that everyone should explore their own community and learn the rich history it contains. Recently I discovered that I was a good example of someone who thought they knew the history of their community pretty well but really only knew part of the story….

My story begins with a visit to a newly restored 1912 post office that was being presented by my local historical society.[1] While there, I struck up a conversation with a few of volunteers and in no time the discussion turned to local history and Indian mounds. Being well read on the subject, I was asked if I knew much about the mound that was located on a nearby island. Of course I knew of the mound but explained that I didn’t think that there was a whole lot to tell. We exchanged a few more stories about local history and after complimenting them on the beautifully restored post office, I proceeded to get on with my day. 

       Later that same week I was contacted by a representative of the Indian Lake Historical Society and asked if I would be interesting in undertaking an exploratory inquiry into the local Indian Mound. Knowing that the mound has never been fully excavated and convinced that little is known about the mound, I thought  it would only take a few calls and minor research to acquire all the known information. I said yes…. and so began my discovery of a history that has nearly been forgotten by everyone.

        The subject of my inquiry was a mound known as the Dunn’s Pond mound. It is located  on the south eastern shore of Indian Lake Ohio. It is nearly twelve feet tall at its highest point and has a diameter of approximately eighty feet. The mound itself was built around 2500 years ago during the time of the Hopewell culture. It is very likely a burial mound.[2]

        At one time the mound was part of 15 mound group that stood alongside a marsh littered with islands, ponds and streams all connecting to the Great Miami River.[3] However, after the signing of the Lewistown Treaty and the creation of Indian Lake the fate of fourteen of the fifteen mounds along with much of the original landscape was sealed.[4]

        Modern researchers don’t know exactly what happened to 14 of the 15 mounds. Most researchers believe that the mounds met their fate during the expansion and colonization of the Lewistown (Indian Lake) region. The mounds are most likely under the lake or plowed into oblivion in favor of farming interests and urban sprawl.

        Ironically the people who built the mounds are in some ways responsible for their own demise… How can a 3000 year old culture be responsible for the actions of people whom they never came in contact with?..............I will explain the connection a little later in the post… but first let’s get back to the mound.

        Since it is very likely to find a Hopewell burial mound within close proximity to a village and it is also likely to find villages within close proximity to waterways, it is of no surprise that the Dunn’s Pond Mound overlooks, what was originally; a collection of streams and creeks that fed a marsh leading to the Miami River. 3000 years ago this area would have been prime real estate for a group of horticulturalists like the Hopewell Indians.[5] With a group of 15 mounds within a close proximity of one another it is highly likely that there was a significant population of ancient Native Americans living within the area that is now called Indian Lake. However, don’t picture a bunch of Indians trying to stay warm and dry while living in a tee pee, that is not how the Hopewell lived.

The Hopewell lived in small communities of 2 to 12 families called hamlets and they lived in thatch wattle houses

        Each village or hamlet was associated with a mound or a series of mounds. So, the fact that there were 15 mounds all located within a few yards of each other tells us that there must have been a significant population to support all of those mounds.[6] However, little evidence remains of their existence. Even though there were ruins of villages documented in the late 1800’s there are no signs of them today. Most likely the villages met the same fate as the majority of the mounds, and were demolished in favor of European expansion. The sad fact is that there is little to no surviving artifacts of the Hopewell anywhere at Indian Lake. There are no surviving village ruins, no grand ceremonial earthworks, and since we are talking about pre historic times, there is no written history to pass on. The lone testament to the people who called this place home long before the white man arrived is the Dunn’s Pond mound and it stands largely unexplored and nearly forgotten.

        Why should we care about a mound that was built by people who were not of European or African heritage and died out hundreds of years before we even arrived on this continent?

        Like it or not those of us living in the good ‘ol USA owe a debt of gratitude to the Hopewell. They were the first culture in the Americas to not only explore the art of long term farming but to invent many of the methods that were passed on from generation to generation.

        When the white man first settled in the new world it was the natives who taught them how to plant maze, beans and squash, the very same foods harvested by the Hopewell. It is very well documented that the first successful settlements in America could not have survived without the help of the Native Americans and the Native Americans are decedents of the Hopewell people. …….So if it were not for the Hopewell’s dedication to farming the natives who helped the settlers may not have had the knowledge to share with the Europeans and if not for the shared knowledge about farming, the Europeans would not have survived in the New World.[7]  However, because of the Hopewell; there was a knowledge about farming that could be passed on to the Europeans and because of that knowledge, European settlements found success. Once the Europeans found success they began to expand and we all know what happened when the Europeans decided to expand across the continent. Needless to say it didn’t far very well for the Natives inhabitants let alone the ancient ruins that had very little meaning to those who felt that the native culture was inferior to their own.

        With that in mind it is not a surprise that the Dunn’s Pond Mound is one of the few surviving things that still remains of an ancient culture that once dominated the Indian Lake region. It is also no surprise that most people couldn’t care less about the giant dirt hill and it is of little surprise that the mound sits unkempt, overgrown and forgotten by most. However, what I discovered during my inquiry on the mound was that this mound was not simple a forgotten eyesore of a culture that has little to do with the one that exists today. Instead I discovered that if it were not for the Hopewell; me, you, and practically every other person living in North America may not have had the chance to grow up in what once called the New World. The New World would not have been colonized if it were not for the lessons in farming passed on by the Native Americans and so the next time you see you hear about an Indian Mound and you ask yourself why bother, remember the horticulturalists of the Hopewell culture. 

        Like it or not those mounds of dirt are not simply ruins of a conquered people, those mounds are part of the story of us and part of the American culture.

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[1] Abbi Adelsbergerl, and Cole McDaniel, "Open house set for historic post office at Indian Lake," Peak of Ohio, July 6, 2016,  http://peakofohio.com/news/details.cfm?id=218106#.WVWJJulGm70.

[2] Sean R. Heights, An Inquiry into the Indian Lake Mounds, Inquiry and Field Study May11 - June 18, 2017, Indian Lake Historical Society, Russells Point, Ohio: Heights on History, 2017.

[3] William C. Mills, 1860-1928,"Archaeological Atlas of Ohio,” Logan County, page 46, Ohio Digital Resource Commons. 1914, https://drc.ohiolink.edu/handle/2374.OX/169348.

[4] Charles J. Kappler, ed. "Vol. II, Treaties: Treaty With the Seneca, Etc., 1831," Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, pgs, 327-33,. Government Printing Office, 1904,  http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/Vol2/treaties/sen0327.htm.

[5] Susan L.Woodward, and Jerry N. McDonald, Indian Mounds of the Middle Ohio Valley: A Guide to Adena and Ohio Hopewell Sites, McDonald and Woodward Publishing Company, 1986.

[6] Bradley Thomas Lepper, Ohio Archaeology: An Illustrated Chronicle of Ohio's Ancient American Indian Culture, Wilmington, Ohio: Orange Frazer Press, 2005, pg78 – 170.

[7] Dave Zuchowski, "Native Americans played-crucial role in settlers survival," Pittsburgh Post Gazette, Nov. 24, 2010, http://www.post-gazette.com/local/south/2010/11/24/Native-Americans-played-crucial-role-in-settlers-survival/stories/201011240253.

Photography and Art

(Dunn’s Pond Mound) : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunns_Pond_Mound

(Hopewell Hamlet) : http://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/hopewell/who_were_hopewell.html

Restoration Has Begun

A lot has happened since the rediscovery of the Dunn’s Pond Mound. The short little inquiry I performed led to a presentation that set attendance records at the historical society. Even though very few people were aware of its existence prior to the presentation, the Mound sparked a flood of interest and action. It seems that once people knew about the mound the more people felt connected to it and the more they wanted to save it for future generations.... So.... back to the mound I went.

My inquiry turned into a full blown historical survey of the sight that was presented to the Ohio Department of Natural Resources and the Ohio Parks Department for review. Within a few weeks the Parks Department agreed to turn the restoration and preservation responsibilities over to the Indian Lake Area Historical Society. With that a few legal documents were signed and the Dunn's Pond Mound became the Historical Societies responsibility.

Wanting to do things correctly modern day horticulturalists as well as mound preservationists were consulted. After all the opinions were heard and a strategy was determined, the process of restoration was set into motion. 

The entire restoration and public presentation process will take months if not years to complete but at least the process has begun. We are one step closer to guaranteeing that this 2000 year old representation of the past will be around for future generations to study and enjoy. Goes to show how much can be accomplished when you explore the history of your own community and get involved.

For the time being the ancient burial sight known as the Dunn's Pond Mound is safe from modern expansion and once again it can rise up out of the Ohio wilderness and stare down at the waters of the Great Miami River and once again become a spiritual place of contemplation and wander.

Dunn's Pond Mound before restoration

Dunn's Pond Mound after the first stage of restoration
September 2017